Immediately After Firing a Neuron Cannot Fire Again No Matter

Chapter 3 Lectures (note revisions if yous have an earlier version)

Modified: 2020-09-02

---

The first step toward understanding psychology starts by looking at the physiology of the nervous system: the encephalon and its associated nervous system. Physiology determines nearly everything most the residue of psychology. Imagine buying a truck and discovering information technology had no motor. Physiology is the motor behind beliefs.

---

On this page y'all will observe the simplest layer of agreement. It, plus what you read in the text should exist enough for you to pass the tests. Clicking on the links will give you a deeper layer and may help you understand the topics more than fully. Try both out and see what works best for you.

• THE NERVOUS Organization (p. 62)
  • Characteristics
    • Complexity
    • Integration
    • Adaptibility
    • Electrochemical activity
  • Pathways (more below)
    • Afferent: pathway for data entering the brain
    • Efferent: pathway for information heady the brain
  • Divisions
    • Cardinal Nervous System (CNS)
      • brain and spinal cord (70% of unabridged nervous organization)
    • Peripheral Nervous Organisation
      • everything except the CNS
      • Somatic Nervous System
        • relays information to brain
        • executes brain'south commands
        • AKA: voluntary nervous system
      • Autonomic Nervous Organisation
        • regulates involuntary functions such as breathing and heart rate
        • Contains two branches
          • Sympathetic
            • prepares the body for action
            • "fight or flying" response
          • Parasympathetic
            • calms the body "rest and digest"
    • DEMOS
      • This i is safe. Time yourself for how long you can concord your breath. At some point, your autonomic nervous organisation will make you breathe. Did you lot brand it to 11 or 22 minutes, the world records? The first is without breathing pure oxygen first, the second is with animate oxygen first. Here is a Spider web Page that tells about those records.
      • This one is impossible: On the count of iii, make your heart end chirapsia :-)
  • Natural Selection Today (read)
    • Covers the history of evolutionary thought and its influence on biology and psychology.
    • "Natural History" is the role of evolution that traces the changes in living things over long periods of fourth dimension (millions of years)
    • The mechanisms of evolution include natural selection, the process by which living things and the environmennt coexist.
      • Extinction often occurs when a species' environment changes affecting its ability to reproduce
      • Genetics is one of the chief drivers of evolutionary modify
    • Differential reproduction, not survival, is the central to evolutionary change
      • Male tarantulas die after reproducing (females may live as long as 20 years), but their genes passed on to the next generation.
      • Dawkins argues that all living things can be thought of equally temporary collections of genes.
    • Evolution is a vital component of psychological theory.
      • Buss' research on jealousy is a adept example.
        • Human men are much more than sexually jealous than women, where women are more emotionally jealous than men
        • Evolutionary psychologists explain that difference in terms of reproductive success:
          • a woman knows the child she is carrying contains half of her genes
          • a man is never sure whether his female partner is pregnant from his sperm, thus phenomena such equally developed:
            • long courtship
            • sexual jealousy
    • Where modern theorists disagree about evolution is in the details. Nearly all psychologists accept evolution as a fact.
  • Introduction to Physiological Psychology (read)
    • Reaffirms the instance of the motor and the truck (encounter in a higher place). Physiology is a complex method for creating behaviors. The nervous system, the endocrine organisation, genetics, and the environment all play a role.
    • Two issues are introduced: Identity and Continuity
      • Identity in this case is best viewed as the reply to this question: "If I knew everything virtually physiology I could predict your beliefs perfectly." I say the answer to that question is "no."
      • Continuity relates to natural history. Non-scientific accounts of human tend to make man beings special and unrelated to the rest of the natural world. Continuity sees humans every bit an integrated part of the natural earth, or but another species.
  • Techniques for Studying the Nervous Organization (p. 75)
    • There are a diversity of techniques for studying the nervous system
    • Older ones include:
      • Lesion and Ablation
        • These invasive methods are not used on humans
          • Lesions are cuts made in an animal'southward brain with the idea existence to come across if behavior changes
          • Ablations are when selective and localized parts of animal's brain are destroyed by some method to encounter if behavior changes
    • Stimulation techniques include:
      • Electrical stimulation
        • Tiny electrodes permanently implanted in the encephalon to see what happens when a mild electric current stimulates a part of an animal's brain
        • Not used on humans
        • NEW Delgado stopping a bull from charging: If you expect carefully you will encounter the antenna of the wireless transmitter in Delgado's hand. It is connected to electrodes in the bull's brain that he surgically implanted earlier
      • Michael Crichton's Terminal Human novel
        • Fictional business relationship of brain stimulation in humans.
        • Speculates on the potential for command of people via implanted electrodes
        • One character seeks the ultimate drug, self-stimulating his "pleasure center"
      • Chemical stimulation
      • Tiny tubes (cannulae) implanted in the brain to introduce chemicals to see if behavior changes
      • Neurostransmitters introduced via the tubes
      • Not used on humans
    • Recording techniques include:
      • Single cell recording
        • A tiny electrode records the activeness of a single neuron
      • EEG (electroencephalogram)
        • A number of surface electrodes record the simultaneous activity of large numbers of neurons (millions)
        • Gives a record of global encephalon activity
        • Used in sleep research and in assessment of aberrant brain function.
    • Biochemical techniques
      • These examine the role of different neural networks that utilize a particular neurotransmitter
      • One good instance is the network using the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh).
        • It controls animate and voluntary movement
      • Similarly, other neural networks use dissimilar neurotransmitters to perform particular functions
    • Imaging techniques include:
      • calculator-assisted tomography (CAT scan) which uses X-rays
      • positron emission tomography (PET scan) which uses the brain's metabolic activity.
      • magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) which uses magnetism
      • functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures real fourth dimension oxygen usage while doing prescribed tasks
      • transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) allows cess of cause and effect past temporarily disabling specific parts of the brain
• Neurons (p. 65)
  • The Neuron
    • Number: around 80 to100 billion neurons
    • Types:
      • afferents: the one-way "highway" coming ENTERING the brain
      • efferents: the one-fashion "highway" LEAVING the brain
      • multipolar: neurons in the central nervous organisation
    • Parts:
      • cell torso
      • nucleus
      • dendrites
      • axon
      • terminal buttons
      • GRAPHIC of a neuron
  • Nerve Conduction: Within the Neuron (read!)
    • Nerve conduction is electrical inside the neuron
    • Neurons at rest are polarized
    • The nerve impulse or action potential is a series of depolariztion events
    • When depolarization reaches the terminal buttons neurotransmitter is released into the synapse
  • Nerve Conduction: Between Neurons (read!)
    • Neurotransmitter is released into the synapase, the narrow space between neurons
    • Ii things can happen:
      • The nerve signal continues (an EPSP)
      • The neve signal stops (an IPSP)
    • Encounter Integration and Summations links beneath for more information
      • All-or-None Constabulary
        • A neuron can just fire in one mode
        • Information technology cannot requite a graded indicate
          • My example is an former Dennis the Menace cartoon
          • In that drawing Dennis's dad is carrying him home, and Dennis says: "Of course I heard yous, yous just did non seem mad plenty all the same."
            • (If anyone finds that cartoon let me know! I spent 2 hours looking for it concluding night!)
          • Obviously, Dennis'southward dad had been calling him: Dennis, Dennis, DENNIS!
            • He was using a graded signal (raising his voice)
          • Neurons cannot do that. They tin merely change their rate of firing. Let me substitute the letter "D" for "Dennis" and look at a neuron. (In other words, neurons cannot "raise their vocalization." Instead, they might burn faster in society to communicate urgency
          • Hither is the early on bespeak D----------D----------D----------D----------D
          • Here is a later betoken D-----D-----D-----D-----D-----D-----D
          • Here is the concluding betoken D--D--D--D--D--D--D--D--D--D--D
          • The neuron changes its rate of firing and, thus, changes the information information technology is relaying
          • Notation that considering of the refractory period (see below) the neuron cannot fire without some filibuster betwixt each action potential
      • Refractory period
        • In physiology, refractory means not responding
        • Afterward a neuron fires information technology cannot fire once more for a short period of fourth dimension, that is its refractory period
          • There are two refractory periods in the neuron
            • Absolute Refractory Period where no stimulus tin can make the neuron fire again
            • Relative Refractory Menstruation where, post-obit the Absolute Refractory Period STRONGER than normal stimulation can make the neuron fire again, sooner than normal
            • The diagram beneath is from physiologyweb
          • My metaphor is the "magic toilet"
            • imagine a toilet that always gives you lot a full flush even when its tank is not full
            • a real toilet cannot practise that even if you striking the handle harder
            • a magic toilet will flush fully at some point in its filling if you hit the handle harder a real toilet will non
            • merely, a "one-half full" neuron will burn fully when more strongly stimulated during the relative refractory period
            • meet the Integration: All or none and summation link beneath for more details

        

  • Curare
    • South American toxicant that bear upon Acetylcholine synapses
    • Causes paralysis and death past asphyxiation
    • Formerly used in surgery before anasthesia was adult
  • Myelination (read)
    • Axons in the peripheral nervous system are covered in myelin
    • Myelin is white, hence the term"white matter"
    • Encephalon axons are unmylenated, hence the term "gray thing"
    • Myelin is laid downward by Schwann cells and has two function
      • Insulate the axon to allow fine motor control
      • Saltatory conduction where the depolarization jumps (saltare is Latin for to jump) from between on Schwann cell to another. That makes the speed of nerve conduction faster
      • In humans neurons conduct from thirty to 100 meters/sec
• Structures of the Brain and Their Function (p. 74)
  • Integration: All-or-none and summation
    • The All-or-None law means neuron can merely fire one way, fully, no partial firing
    • A neuron tin can be either excited, significant impulse will keep (EPSP)
    • Or a neuron can be inhibited, meaning the impulse will finish (IPSP)
    • Notice how either can convey information
    • In temporal summation the pre-synaptic neuron fires repeatedly making the postal service-synaptic neuron more similar to fire during its relative refractory period
    • In the Temporal Summation movie below, the pre-synaptic neuron must burn twice before the post-synaptic neuron volition fire
    • In spatial summation several pre-synaptic neurons firing simultaneously make the post-synaptic neuron more like to fire during its relative refractory menstruation
  • Brains and Evolutionary Constraints (read)
    • CNS and peripheral nervous systems defined (again)
    • Layout of human brain is nearly a right angle (see human brain diagram beneath)
    • Bumpy brain allows more brain tissue within a given volume
    • Human head size at birth is constrained by female pelvis
    • We use all of our brain (at to the lowest degree when needed)
  • Organizing Principles of the Brain (read)
• The Hindbrain (Read)
  • Medulla
  • Pons
  • Reticular Germination
  • Cerebellum
• The Colliculi
  • Inferior colliculus: reflexive monitoring of audio
  • Superior colliculus: reflexive monitoring of lite
• The Cerebrum or Neocortex (Read)
• Hemispheric Specialization (Read)
  • Brain has right and left halves that are physically identical mirror images but functionally unlike
  • Just, you do not accept ii brains
    • Left hemisphere: linguistic communication and logical idea
    • Correct hemisphere: rhythm, spatial relations, intuitive thought
    • Some take reversed functions and left-handers are more likely to exhibit that reversal
      • hooked writing style is diagnostic
      • Wada Test
  • "Divide-brain" research
    • Participants had epilepsy so the inquiry was really therapy
    • Corpus callosums were cut
    • Afterwards:
      • All wrote only with their right hands,
      • simply drew simply with their left easily
      • blindfolded, all could proper noun an object in their right hands, but could not name the same objects in their left hands.
      • All could identify objects in their correct visual fields, but could not place objects in their left visual fields.
      • Agenesis: those built-in without corpus callosum (rare: 1 in 4000 people). Does not usually impair cerebral function
• The Endocrine System (p. 89)
  • The Endocrine System (read)
    • Endocrine glands
      • Pituitary (the master gland)
      • Adrenals
      • Pancreas
      • Ovaries
      • Testes
      • Thyroids
      • Parathyroids
    • Activeness
      • Negative feedback (encounter The Endocrine System)
      • Hypothalamus monitors hormone levels
      • Makes pituitary plough on target glands
      • When levels loftier enough, the process is reversed.
• Brain Damage, Plasticity, and Repair (p. 90)
• AUDIO, my encephalon tumor->
• Script for encephalon tumor audio (NOT ON Exam)
• Genetics and Behavior (p. 92)
  • Chromosomes, Genes, Deoxyribonucleic acid
    • Chromosomes are plant in every cell
    • They contain DNA
      • Deoxyribonucleic acid is a well-nigh universal complex molecule that encodes genetic information
      • Genes are the units of genetic information
      • The Human being Genome Project identified some twenty,000 genes in humans
    • The Written report of Genetics
      • Genetics had to be studied indirectly in the past
        • The presence of dominant and recessive genes aided that process
          • Dominant genes override recessive genes
          • Most genetic characteristics are polygenic, meaning they are coded by more than one gene
      • Molecular Genetics
        • The written report of genetics at its everyman level is molecular genetics
        • The Homo Genome Projection identified many gene locations related to wellness and well-existence
      • Selective Breeding
        • Selective breeding or eugenics is very controversial
          • Nazi Germany practiced eugenics by promoting certain people to have children and denying others that opportunity
          • Tryon (1940) bred successive generations of rats to either excel or non in a laboratory maze. He was successful (p. 94) but discovered that the comeback or arrears was specific to maze running.
          • Selective breeding is skilful daily in creature husbandry and phytology.
            • Right now, UPS is likely delivering frozen sperm from a prize-winning bull to a rancher somewhere in the United states
              • That rancher will artificially inseminate his cows to ameliorate some genetic characteristic (east.g., meliorate milk production or improve quality of beefiness)
            • Thoroughbred race horses, besides, are bred (but naturally, information technology'south a dominion) to brand offspring more probable to win races
              • A Kentucky Derby winner will earn its possessor much more money in stud fees than information technology ever did winning races
          • "Gattaca" (flick): describes dystopian future where but genetically superior humans are immune to brood (Not on test)
      • Genome Broad Association Methods
        • Inspired by the Human Genome Projection researchers search for groups of genes linked to diseases such every bit Alzheimer's or depression
        • Linkage assay reveals genes that are nearby on chromosomes and are likely to be inherited as a grouping
      • Behavior Genetics
        • Genetics affects behavior, the question is by how much
          • Twin Studies
            • The study of identical twins raised apart has yielded much information about that question
            • Minnesota Twins Raised Apart Study
              • The Jim Twins were remarkably similar:
                • Both twins are married to women named Betty and divorced from women named Linda.
                • One has named his first son James Alan while the other named his offset son James Allan.
                • Both twins have an adopted brother whose name is Larry.
                • Both named their pet canis familiaris "Toy."
                • Both had some law-enforcement grooming and had been a part-fourth dimension deputy sheriff in Ohio.
                • Each did poorly in spelling and well in math.
                • Each did carpentry, mechanical drawing, and block lettering.
                • Each vacation in Florida in the aforementioned iii-block-long beach surface area.
                • Both twins began suffering from tension headaches at eighteen, gained ten pounds at the same fourth dimension, and are vi anxiety tall and 180 pounds.
                • Nigh such identical twins are not so similar, simply are more like to each other than regular siblings are
            • My take: My married woman and I take 3 children, none are twins, but all are very different in beliefs and personality from birth even though they were raised in the aforementioned home. Human being beliefs is the product of genetics and environment.
      • Genes in the Environment
        • Genotypes and Phenotypes
          • a genotype is the genetic information coded by the gene
          • a phenotype is the expression of the genotype in structure or beliefs
        • Gene expression
          • The surroundings, indirectly, and hormones, directly, can turn on or plow off genes
• Psychology's Biological Foundation and Health and Wellness (p. 97)
  • Stress page
  • Astute vs Chronic Stress
    • Acute:
      • "I'grand giving a pop quiz"
      • "That policeman is pulling us over."
    • Chronic
      • "My job sucks and I tin can't get another i. I've been hither for years."
      • "This is my fourth deployment to the Sandbox (Iraq or Afghanistan)."
    • Selye's General Accommodation Syndrome catalogs human response to stress in three stages:
      • Alarm: the signs of stress on the Stress page announced
      • Resistance: those signs disappear and adrenal activeness increases (person is coping with chronic stress)
      • Exhaustion: sickness and death are possible as adrenal gland tin no longer aid in coping
• KEY TERMS (p. 99)
  • Be certain y'all go over the key terms listed on this folio earlier y'all have the examination!

---

Back to Full general Psychology

pricewasking1987.blogspot.com

Source: http://peace.saumag.edu/faculty/kardas/courses/GPWeiten/Chapter3Lectures.html

Share this post